argument

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2022

We explain what an argument is, what types exist, its structure, examples and how to do it. Also, what is a counterargument.

An argument tries to demonstrate the validity of an idea.

What is an argument?

An argument is the expression of reasoning, whether oral or written, as part of the logical attempt to demonstrate the validity or invalidity of an argument. thesis or proposition, through its link with a series of conclusions.

In other words, an argument is a form of reasoning that justifies a position regarding something, through a set of premises and a logically drawn conclusion from them. Arguing, therefore, means giving arguments to the other, just as lawyers do during a trial to try to convince the jury.

The arguments are part of the speeches and opinions, but they are not always valid or convenient. For this reason, they are not always successful in defending a position, that is, in convincing or motivating an action. For example, a discussion typically consists of two or more persons exchanging arguments to try to make others think about an issue as they do.

The validity of an argument depends on the logical procedure they offer, for which they must be coherent and consistent, that is, they must not contradict themselves, nor must they lack a formal structure (that is, they cannot have “gaps”). In case they are not valid, they are often referred to as fallacies.

Argument types

Depending on its content and its procedures, it is possible to identify different types of arguments, so that they can be very numerous, since there is no single way to argue. Some of them are:

  • Arguments deductive. Those who start from certain or probable premises and draw surely valid conclusions from them, going from the general to the particular. This is a type of argument common in Sciences and the logic formal, which however is limited by the veracity of its premises, which are taken as a starting point. For example: If all humans necessarily die, and I in particular am human, it is certain that I will die.
  • Inductive arguments. They proceed the opposite of the deductive, starting from the specific to arrive at the general. Thus, the inductive method has some of creativity and it is less certain, but it is particularly useful for actuarial science and statistics. For example: If a person wins the lottery, and I also play the lottery, I probably win it too.
  • Abductive arguments. In this case, the arguments do not start from certain premises, but rather assume two isolated premises and obtain a probable, albeit unverifiable, conclusion. For example: If a friend gets into a fight with his girlfriend, and after a while I see him making out with another girl, I can assume that he broke up with his girlfriend as a result of the fight.
  • Causal arguments. They are those that start from the linking of one event with another, according to the laws of cause and effect. In that sense, they establish a bond that on the surface seems necessary, but might not be. For example: Every time I travel by bus, I get dizzy. So the bus is the cause of my dizziness.
  • Arguments for generalization. They are those that propose to extend a property to a group of elements, only by having observed it in a few members of the set. For example: I am irascible and I am a Gemini, and my friend Yenny is irascible and also a Gemini; therefore all Geminis are irascible.

Structure of an argument

Every argument is made up of two basic elements:

  • Premises. The starting points of logical reasoning, which provide the initial elements from which to find something. They can be of different numbers. For example: "All men are mortal" and "I am a man."
  • Conclusions. The second part of the reasoning, which depends on the first and is obtained from some kind of logical procedure, thus ending the argument. For example: "I then am mortal."

These elements are organized as follows:

  • Affirmation. The initial premise of the argument, that which we wish to prove or justify.
  • Reasoning. The reason for the statement, that is, the logical or formal support that sustains it.
  • Evidence. The evidence we provide to verify or demonstrate reasoning.

How to make an argument?

To make an argument, you need to follow these steps:

  • Choose the premises. The first step in any argumentation involves the information, so it is necessary to know what we are talking about and what is our position on it. Once the premises have been formulated, we must choose the one that we will use as a statement, that is, the initial one to justify or support from now on. For example: "Flying by plane pollutes more than traveling by car "
  • Find the most adequate reasoning. This means choosing between methods possible logical justification to support our claim, which is equivalent to choosing a path that leads to the goal desired. Depending on this path, we will have to choose one or other evidence. This can also be influenced, if any, by the premises of our opponent in the debate. For the previous example, a good reasoning would be the one that goes to the explanation of the operation of the engines of an airplane and the type of fuel it uses, to demonstrate its chemistry and how it throws much more carbon into the air. atmosphere.
  • Go to the evidence. This implies going to specific cases, to third-party arguments, to authority criteria, in short, to any type of proposition that serves to support the premises or initial statements. For the example that we are giving, the ideal would be to have statistics, scientific articles or other type of evidence that supports what has been said.

Argument examples

Here are a couple of argument examples:

  • Premise: “Buenos Aires is the town with more bookstores in the world ”.

Reasoning: “Taking into account that only in a small neighborhood of the city like Recoleta we can easily count more than ten bookstores, how many cannot we find in a large neighborhood like Palermo? How many will there then be in the 48 that make up the city? There is no other city in which there is a similar percentage ”.

  • Premise: "Storms can cause migraines."

Reasoning: “According to an article in the journal Nature in 2012, this incidence is not rare and has to do with atmospheric pressure, which affects more organisms genetically prone to migraine. And in the article they also cited several investigations at the University of Oxford that supported it.

Counterargument

A counterargument or objection is a reply, that is, to an argument that is used to contradict another, demonstrating its invalidity or pointing out the weaknesses of its structure, to affirm just the opposite. It is also possible to use a counterargument to object to another, in a chain of logical confrontations that usually occurs in discussions or debates.

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